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Randy's Paper
ATHLETE BURNOUT AND COMPETITION ANXIETY
Athlete Burnout and Competition Anxiety
RJD ~ Student
Athlete Burnout and Competition Anxiety
The idea of athlete burnout as defined by Raedeke and Smith (2001, p. 238) is "a psychological syndrome of emotional
or physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, and sport devaluation." Though this phenomenon can affect
an athlete throughout his or her athletic career, little research has been done as to how it can be managed. In this
day and age, competition in sport as well as day to day life has gotten to be extreme. With athletic scholarships being
fewer and fewer, competition for those awards begin at much younger ages. Parents and coaches pressure younger and younger
children to excel in their respective sports and sometimes ask too much from them. The same pressure is applied to high
school and collegiate athletes, however the intensity is exponentially increased and the room for error is dramatically decreases.
One article focused on the coach's perspective
of athlete burnout. Raedeke, Lunney, and Venables (2002) interviewed 13 senior coaches of the USA Swim Team to examine
what the coaches described and defined as signs of symptoms of athlete burnout. The definition that Raedeke et al.,
(2002) resulted with for burnout was "a withdrawal from swimming noted by a reduced sense of accomplishment, devaluation
or resentment of sport, and physical and psychological exhaustion." With this definition, each of the coaches made
a distinction between the term burnout from the term dropout. The overall consensus held that "dropping out"
resulted from a benevolent disinterest in swimming and a desire to participate in other activities. Conversely, "burning
out" was described with a much more negative connotation. The coaches saw burning out to be rooted in frustration
and disillusionment. They also saw burning out as a long-term condition lasting for at least several months, if not
to complete withdrawal from sport. However, the coaches also mentioned that, in order to burn out, athletes must have
at least at one point been committed and enthusiastic about swimming.
The coaches mention 6 major symptoms of burning out:
1) Withdrawal: A physical
withdrawal from swimming.
2) Withdrawal from Training: Coaches most commonly
stated that the most obvious symptom of burning out was swimmers distancing themselves from training. For example, players
that started to use excuses for showing up late to practices or not showing up at all.
3)
Withdrawal from Teammates: Burned out athletes may also distance themselves from their fellow teammates. It is
typical that burned out athletes decrease the time they spent with teammates.
4)
Lack of Improvement: One of the 13 coaches simply stated, "I would define burnout as a lack of progress."
However, burnout is not merely triggered by failing to improve, it is more dependent on how the athlete deals with their lack
of improvement. Coaches stated that "It is the inability to work through periods of where they don't improve."
5) Diminished Sense of Progress: This concept is seen when athletes do not feel
as if their hard work is paying off, or that they have reached a certain point that they cannot surpass.
6)
Improper Goal Setting: Occurs when athletes set goals that are too high and over-train in order to compensate.
Coaches also mentioned that athletes who focused more on end result rather than striving toward goals experienced a more reduced
sense of accomplishment.
This study could apply to Chapman athletes that have surely experienced burnout at some
point in their career. Since many college athletes have been playing their sport for a number of years, practices could
become monotonous and seemingly unnecessary. It is imperative for athletes to set tough but attainable goals in order
for them to stay on course with their sport. Coaches also have a part in athlete burnout so their roles are as important
as the athletes'. Coaches should be able to push their athletes to excel their skills but be careful not to push
them to hard. The previously listed symptoms could help coaches deter athletes on the path to burnout to revision their
purpose in sport and reconnect with the reason they play in the first place.
This article showcased the burnout
process and its affects on the burned out athlete. It offered a concise definition of what burnout is and what it is
not. Overall the article demonstrated the dangers of an athlete burning out and offered a coaches perspective.
It is important to understand the coaches' perspective in order for them to keep their athletes happy and with high self
esteem.
In a second related study, Barber, Sukhi, and White (2000) researched the influence of parent-coaches on
participant motivation and competitive anxiety. Though it is common for some parents to be the coach of their children,
the dynamics of the parent/coach's impact on the participant has not been examined extensively. The researchers
studied a group of 36 parent coached children and another group of 26 non-parent coached children. However, through
a battery of questionnaires, the researchers were unable to deduce any difference between the parent coached children ad the
non-parent coached children.
This could infer
that having a parent coach their child's team does not have as much of an impact then previously assumed. Since
the level of participant motivation and competitive anxiety did not change between parent-coached children and their non parent
coached counterparts, it can be said that having your parent as a coach does not lead to burnout as previously assumed.
Chapman athletics could heed this discovery in order to dissemble the stigma that coaches that have children on the team cannot
decipher between the roles of parent and coach. This would mean that athletes can compete in a fair atmosphere in which
parent bias would not be a bias or extra pressure on any individual. This could also open up positions for parents of
Chapman athletes that coach at other schools.
I thought this article did well in debunking the common idea that parent-coaches have more overbearing tendencies toward their
own children. Many young athletes grow up playing with their parent as a coach or their friends parents at one point.
A third study on athlete burnout focused on
the aspect of overtraining and its impact on youth athletes. Cox (2007) describes overtraining as occurring when the
athlete trains beyond the level that is ideal for maximum benefit. Hollander, Meyers, LeUnes, and Arnold (2001) described
a template with signs and symptoms of overtraining:
Signs:
1) Tension
2) Drawness
3)
Emotional instability
4) Difficulty concentrating at work and training
5)
Increased internal and external distractibility
6) Decreased ability t deal with
large amounts of information
7) Changes in personality
8)
General apathy
Symptoms:
1) Feelings of depression
2)
Decreased self-esteem/worsening feelings of self
3) Sensitive to environmental and
emotional stress
4) Fear of competition
5)
Hesitant to control challenges
These signs and symptoms could help Chapman coaches gauge if there are overtraining
their athletes. It is imperative that coaches heed these symptoms so they are careful not to force their athletes into
burnout before the season has begun. Teammates can also help each other through some of these symptoms since many times
they are present in more players than one.
I
saw this article as very helpful for coaches and players to ward off the threats of overtraining. Overtraining is just
as dangerous as burnout and can happen at a quicker pace, perhaps even before the season begins.
In the fourth article, Anshel and Delany (2001) studied the sources for acute stress and the coping strategies of male and
female child athletes age 10 to 12 based on structural personal interviews. The results of this study showed that having
the umpire make a bad call, and making a physical in game error were the two most frequently cited and intense sources of
stress for both males and females. The reported coping strategies were "concentrating on the next task" and
"forgetting the stressor."
This study
researched how athletes deal with unexpected obstacles that occur during competition. It is very helpful for Chapman
athletes to realize that they will never play a perfect game, therefore being able to cope with unexpected situations while
in sport is very important. For example it is important for Chapman athletes to realize that the referees also make
mistakes and will sometimes make bad calls. It is important for the athletes to keep a level head and not get distracted
too much. Also it is important for them to be able to move past their personal mistakes and focus and success rather
than dwell on an in game error that they did. Chapman coaches could use this information to regulate the amount of in
game stress the athlete experiences. Bad calls should be challenged by the coach and not the athlete. Also, it
is important that the coaches do not belittle athletes after making mistakes so that they do not dwell on them all game long.
In the final article, Gotwals, Dunn, and Wayment
(2003) examined perfectionism and self-esteem in intercollegiate athletes. Through distribution of a battery of scales,
the researchers attempted to examine the multivariate relationship to distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive profiles
of perfectionism. The results however, did not indicate that an adaptive profile of perfectionism was correlated with
the self-esteem construct.
This final article
was not successful in proving the hypothesis. I do not think it offers much to apply to Chapman athletes and coaches.
If a correlation was offered by this study then perhaps it would be beneficial for coaches to give their players personality
tests that could test for perfectionism. However, since it does not offer a proven hypothesis, the article does nothing
but comment on previous research.
In all the
idea of burnout has many aspects and affects on the athlete. It can come at all stages of training in sports.
Though a cure is not feasible, coping strategies and warning signs have given coaches cues that indicate their athlete is
burning out. If a coach is good at picking up on such cues, it is a lot easier to save athletes from burning out rather
than after the fact. It is important that the coach reaches the athlete before apathy sets in. Most of these studies
would prove beneficial to those affiliated with Chapman athletics. Burning out is a universal pitfall of athletic competition,
however, learning how to avoid it and how to keep athletes progressing is a major goal of all coaches in all sports.
References
Anshel, M. & Delany, J. (2001, Dec). Sources of acute stress, cognitive appraisals, and
coping strategies of male and female athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior. 24. pg. 329-354. Retrieved on April
1, 2008 from ProQuest Online Database.
Barber, H., Sukhi, H., & White, S. (2000, June). The influence
of parent-coaches n participation motivation and competition anxiety in youth sport participants. Journal of Sport Behavior.
22, 162-181. Retrieved on April 1, 2008 from ProQuest Online Database.
Cox, R. (2007). Sport Psychology:
Concepts and Applications. New York: McGraw Hill.
Gotwals, J., Dunn, J., & Wayment, H. (2003, Mar.)
An examination of perfectionism and self-esteem in intercollegiate athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior. 26, 17-39.
Retrieved on April 1, 2008 from ProQuest Online Database.
Hollander., Meyers, D., LeUnes, M, & Arnold. (2001,
Mar.) Psychological factors associated with overtraining: Implications for youth sport coaches. Journal of Sport
Behavior. 18, 3. Retrieved on April 1, 2008 from ProQuest Online Database.
Raedeke, T, Lunney, K, & Venables,
K. (2002, Jun.) Understanding athletes' burnout: Coach perspectives. Journal of Sport Behavior. 25. 181-207.
Retrieved on April 1, 2008 from ProQuest Online Database.
Interpersonal Attraction: Implications of mate selection
RJD ~ Student
Operational Definitions
Swami and Tove (2008) frame attraction as a stereotyping
phenomenon having to do with characteristic trait ratings. Also, attractiveness is framed as a relationship phenomenon
that places much importance on the appraisal of initial attraction. (Swami and Tove, 2008). The waist-to-hip ratio
is considered to be the measurement of the circumference of the waist in relation to the circumference measurement of the
hips. (Puhl, and Boland, 2001) The waist-to-chest-ratio as described by Swami and Tove (2008) is the circumference
of the waist in relation to the circumference of the chest. Weeden, Sabini (2005) describe the Body Mass Index (BMI)
as a statistical measurement which compares a person's weight and height. Though it does not actually measure the
percent of body fat, it is a useful tool to estimate a healthy body weight based on how tall a person is.
Statement
of Topic
The topic of my research will be in physical attraction and the implications of mate selection.
My primary question will be: what is considered attractive to heterosexual males and females? My secondary question
will ask: Do the implications of attraction hold the same basis for homosexual mate appraisal?
Geary, D.
C., Vigil, J., & Byrd-Craven, J. (2004). Evolution of human mate choice.
Journal of Sex Research, 41,
2742.
This article provides a review of evolutionary theory and empirical research on mate choices in nonhuman
species and uses it as a frame for attempting to understand the how and why of human mate choices. The basic principle
is that the preferred mate choices and attendant social cognitions and behaviors of both women and men, and those of other
species, have evolved to focus on and exploit the reproductive potential of members of the opposite sex. Similarities and
differences in the mate preferences and choices of women and men can be understood in terms of similarities and differences
in the form of reproductive potential that women and men have to offer and their tendency to use this potential for the well-being
of children. The evidence presented supports the view that human mate preferences and choices are a product of our evolutionary
history, and reflect many of the same mechanisms like sexual selection, that influenced the evolution and proximate expression
of mate choices. With respects to physicality, theory holds that men should have evolved to focus on those physical
attributes of women that are predictive of their reproductive potential, specifically their ability to conceive, carry, and
birth healthy children. Some of these traits include age, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast symmetry.
The combination of those define the individual's mate preference and drives the dynamics of male-male and female-female
competition for the best mates.
Anderson, S., Adams, G., & Plaut, V. (2008, August.) The cultural
grounding of personal relationship: The importance of attractiveness in everyday life.
Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(2), 352-368.
The purpose of this study was to determine the importance
of physical attractiveness in everyday life and how it may vary depending on the extent to which different cultural worlds
allow or require individual choice in the construction and maintenance of personal relationships. The authors hypothesized
that attractiveness matters more for life outcomes in settings that promote voluntaristic-independent constructions of relationship
as the product of personal choice than it does in settings that promote embedded-interdependent constructions of relationships
as an environmental affordance. To test this, researchers took students from two American universities and a Ghanaian
university and asked them to complete a survey rating their satisfaction with life outcomes. Results from the study
provided evidence that the importance of physical attractiveness for life outcomes varies as a function of the implicit makeup
of relationship. Specifically, the results provided support for the hypothesis that there is a positive association
between physical attractiveness and self-reported outcomes. Results also suggest that the association is greater in
contexts that promote an experience of relationship as the product of individual choice than it is in contexts that promote
an experience of relationship as a reflection of environmental affordance.
Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. (2005).
Physical attractiveness and health in Western
societies: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 635653.
The purpose of this article was to provide evidence from Western societies that claim physical attractiveness judgments
are substantially based on body size, shape, symmetry, sex-typical hormonal markers, and other specific cues. The supplementary
hypothesis holds that physical attractiveness and these cues substantially predict health. However, among the cues reviewed,
only female waist-to-hip ratio and weight appear to predict both attractiveness and health in the claimed manner. The
present research on the body size and shape correlates of women's body attractiveness most commonly uses measures of Body
Mass Index (BMI) and Waist to Hip Ratio (WHR). For self-ratings of attractiveness in typically distributed samples,
research has shown that men in overweight BMI ranges, like women, rate themselves as less attractive, though men in higher
BMI ranges rate themselves as more attractive than women in higher BMI ranges. The dominant theme for men appeared to
be the attractiveness of the simultaneous presence of high muscularity and low fatness, which in the end makes BMI alone an
insufficient measure because it confounds somewhat men with high muscularity and moderate fatness. Results suggest that
unattractive male bodies appear to come in two forms in typical populations, those that are skinny (low fatness and low muscularity)
and those that are high fat relative to muscularity. A battery of studies also suggest that men consider themselves
least attractive in the underweight BMI range, in contrast to women, who consider themselves most attractive in the underweight
BMI range. Conversely, other studies have also found that women prefer men with inverted triangular shaped upper bodies
with relatively high chest-to-waist (or shoulder-to-waist) ratios.
Klohnen, E., & Luo, S.
(2003, October). Interpersonal attraction and personality:
What is attractive-self similarity, ideal similarity,
complementarity or attachment security?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 85(4), 709-722.
The
purpose of this study was to research why human beings are attracted to some individuals and not others. In order to
operationalize this question, researchers attempted to examine initial attraction process in terms of adult attachment as
well as investigate the role actual and perceptual factors play in attraction. The researchers tested three potential
hypotheses. The first of these hypotheses is the complementarity hypothesis, which holds that people should be attracted
to those who have personality traits that are "complementary" to their own. The next hypothesis was the attachment
security hypothesis, which believes that everyone should be most attracted to secure partners. The last of these hypotheses
was the similarity to ideal self hypothesis, which holds that we should be attracted to those who are most similar to how
we see ourselves. To test this, researchers asked a total of 751 participants to complete ratings concerning their own
attachment organization. Afterwards, participants were asked to read an array of romantic partner descriptions, rate
their reactions to each partner, and complete attachment style ratings for each partner. Participants then used a 7-point
Likert scale to respond to 10 questions designed to measure various aspects of attraction to the romantic partner each respective
participant was evaluating (1=not at all attractive to 7=quite attractive.) The results showed that attachment security
and self similarity increased attraction. Each of the hypotheses was supported in inferring that perceptual factors,
security, self similarity, and ideal self similarity were strong predictors of attraction.
Antheunis, M., Valkenburg,
P., Peter, J. (2007). Computer-Mediated Communication
and Interpersonal Attraction: An Experimental
Test of Two Explanatory Hypotheses. Journal of Cyber Psychology & Behavior, (10),
831-835.
The purpose of this article was to investigate the influence of computer-mediated communication (CMC)
on interpersonal attraction and also to examine two underlying processes in the CMC-interpersonal attraction relationship.
The researchers attempted to test their hypothesis that CMC leads to more direct questioning, which in turn enhances the levels
of interpersonal attraction. Their secondary hypothesis held that CMC leads to higher levels of intimate self-disclosure,
which in turn results in higher levels of interpersonal attraction. To test these hypotheses, researcher took one hundred
and sixty-two university students and asked them to one of three experimental conditions. The first was the text-only
CMC condition in which participants interacted through IM software especially designed for the experiment. The next
condition had participants interact through the same IM software that had a visual component in which the participants could
see each other. The third condition was a face-to-face condition where the participants interacted in a laboratory living
room provided with hidden recording equipment. The results of the study supported both of the CMC-induced direct questioning
hypothesis and the CMC-induced self-disclosure hypothesis. This suggests that although both text-only and visual CMC
have the potential to enhance direct questioning and self-disclosure, the CMC conditions did differ in their potential to
enhance interpersonal attraction. Researchers infer that when information about the physical appearance of the partner
is available in a CMC condition, the mediated effects of direct questioning and self-disclosure on interpersonal attraction
is overshadowed by cues about a partner's physical appearance.
Byrne, D., London, O., Reeves, K. (1968, June).
The effects of physical attractiveness,
sex, and attitude similarity on interpersonal attraction.
The
purpose of this archival study was to decipher how it is possible to account for attraction responses that made prior to interaction.
Also the author of this study intended to find the basis upon which first impressions are formed. Researchers took 89
university students and asked them to examine a yearbook photograph and attempt to form an evaluative opinion of the person.
Evaluations were made using the Interpersonal Judgment Scale (IJS) which consists of six seven-point items dealing with the
stranger's intelligence, to likeability and desirability as a work partner. The results allowed the author to suggest
that physical attractiveness does exert an influence on interpersonal attraction for participants of each sex toward strangers
of either sex. Also the results suggest that the responsiveness to attitude similarity-dissimilarity in opposite-sex
strangers did infer positively on attraction.
Bos, H., Sandfort, T., de Bruyn, E.,
& Hakvoort, E. (2008, January). Same-sex
attraction, social relationships, psychosocial functioning,
and school performance in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 59-68.
This study attempted
to analyze the social networks of young adolescents with same-sex attraction. The focus of this research was to determine
if there is a difference in psychosocial functioning between those adolescents that claim to be gay, lesbian or bi-sexual
(GLB). Prior research inferred that experiencing same sex attraction without self-identifying as GLB is usually seen
as an initial stage in the sexual identity development of sexual minority youth. Prior research found that it is frequently
shown that homosexual adults recall that during their adolescence they felt different from their same-sex peers, partly for
the same reasons as other adolescents. These reasons were physical appearance, abilities, and personality characteristics.
The hypotheses of this study held that young adolescents' discovery of same sex attraction and a related sense of being
different would have a negative effect on the quality of their social networks. The researchers used a sample of 479
boys and 387 girls from an array of different socioeconomic statuses and ethnicities. Research assistants administered
a computer-based questionnaire to individual students. The questionnaire assessed sexual attraction with the question
"Do you feel sexually attracted to someone of your own sex?" (1=very often, 2=often, 3=frequently, 4=sometimes,
5=never) The findings of this research indicated that differences in depression, and self-esteem between young adolescents
with and without same-sex attraction are an outcome of the expected lower quality of social relationships of same-sex attracted
adolescents with their social network; therefore supporting the initial hypothesis.
Sangrador, J., L. & Yela,
C. (200). What is beautiful is loved: Physical attractiveness in
love relationships in a representative
sample. Social Behavior and Personality, 28, 207-218.
The purpose of this journal article was to address
the key factors in falling in love and the differences between sporadic and lasting relationships. The researchers hypothesized
that the perceived physical attraction of the partner is one of the key factors in the creation of loving relationships (short
term or lasting). Also, in a second hypothesis the researchers believed the perceived physical attraction of other will be
related to the different components of love, including the idealization of the partner. The study took individuals from
both sexes ranging between 18 and 64 years of age. Investigators conducted individual interviews in which a measurement
scale was created for many aspects of love/mate selection: Physical attractiveness of the "other"(range of
0-10), preference in sporadic relationships (20 options),Preference in stable relationships, Manner of falling in love, Erotic
passion, Romantic passion, Intimacy, Commitment, Idealization of the "other," Satisfaction of the relationship.
The results showed that physical attraction was an important factor in mate selection. However, differences arose between
short term and lasting relationships. It appears that physical attraction was ranked first in importance in short term
relationship types while ranking a much less relevant 9th overall in stable long term relationships. Also the second
hypothesis was supported in inferring that the perception of the physical attraction of partner is a response not just to
physical traits, but instead to a complex combination in which many more psychological and/or emotional aspects are included.
Swami, V., & Tove, M. (2008, March). The muscular male: A comparison of the
physical attractiveness
preferences of gay and heterosexual men. International Journal of Men's Health, 7(1), 59-71.
The purpose of
this study was to examine the association between sexual orientation and the perception of men's physical attractiveness.
Researchers took 65 volunteer university students whom they asked to identify their sexual orientation on an 8-point Kinsey-type
scale: exclusively heterosexual (1), primarily heterosexual (2), more heterosexual than homosexual (3), bisexual (4), more
homosexual than heterosexual (5), primarily homosexual (6), exclusively homosexual (7), and unsure (8). The participants
were then asked to rate images of a range of body features with a set of attractiveness ratings. The results suggested
hat men's perceptions of bodily attractiveness can be explained by perceptual cues such as upper-body shape and body weight.
Results found he waist-to-chest ratio was the primary component of attractiveness ratings for both heterosexual and gay men.
However, gay men showed a stronger preference for lower waist-to-chest ratio, indicating a preference for a more developed
upper-body build. This suggests that upper-body shape is more important for men's attractiveness overall body mass.
Liszcz, A., & Yarhouse, M. (2005, March). Same-sex attraction: A survey regarding
client-directed
treatment goals. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42(1), 111-115.
This study was conducted
to further elucidate psychologists' current attitudes regarding treatment goals related to same-sex feelings. Researchers
attempted to investigate the degree of agreement with client-directed treatment goals among different groups of psychologists:
generalists; those self-identified as specializing in lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues; and psychologist who were religiously
affiliated. Participants were obtained from a random sample of 600 individuals collected from a directory of psychologists
who self-identified as clinicians and generalists in the American Psychological Association membership directory. Researchers
hypothesized that the religious-identified psychologists would demonstrate less endorsement of the response agreeing to work
toward "coming out of the closet" when compared with the other two groups. Likewise, the lesbian, gay, bisexual
specialists were expected to demonstrate less endorsement of the responses agreeing to "change behavior" and "change
orientation" than the other two groups. Respondents were asked to evaluate four vignettes involving four different
clients with same-sex feelings and presenting different treatment goals. Religious clinicians, LGB specialists, and
general psychologists showed significant differences in agreement with client-directed treatment goals when responding to
vignettes depicting a client presenting with various concerns. The religious clinicians demonstrated less endorsement
of the gay-affirmative responses that agreed to help the client "come out of the closet." Similarly, the LGB
specialists showed the least agreement with the clinician response that supported the clients' desires to change same-sex
behavior and/or orientation. The findings support the hypothesis that LGB and those religiously affiliated psychologist
differ in their treatment approach.
Lydon, J., Menzies-Toman, D., Burton, K., & Bell, C. (2008, July). If-then
contingencies
and the differential effects of the availability of an attractive alternative on relationship maintenance
for men and women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 50-65.
The purpose of the study was to
test the theory of commitment that predict that the availability of an attractive alternative relationship partner should
have a negative impact on commitment and relationship survival because it is in one's rational self-interest to pursue
one's attraction to the alternative. Much prior research has suggested that the comparison level for alternatives
(the availability and attractiveness of an alternative) is predictive of the rate of relationship breakup. Therefore
the hypothesis outlined in this study is that the availability of alternatives should decrease commitment. Researchers
took 300 heterosexual male and female participants who were all involved in a romantic relationship. These participants
were randomly assigned to conditions whereby 100 visualized an interaction with an attractive alternative who asked for the
participant's phone number, 101 visualized an interaction with an attractive alternative who made a passing reference
to his/her dating partner, and 99 visualized an interaction with a member of the same sex. The results provided preliminary
evidence consistent with the hypothesis that men and women would construe an interaction with an attractive alternative in
different ways. Women and men did not differ at all in the activation of threat words in the control condition, but
they differed significantly in the experimental condition. This hints at the possibility that commitment may be more
chronically accessible for women than for men across situations.
Maner, J., Gailliot, M., Rouby, D., & Miller,
S. (2007, September). Can't take my eyes
off you: Attentional adhesion to mates and rivals. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 3(3), 389-401.
This study examined the functionalist perspective that implies the presence
of interactive effects such that a mate-search motive will increase attentional adhesion to physically attractive members
of the opposite sex, primarily among individuals with an unrestricted mating strategy. However, a mate-guarding motive
is prospected to increase attentional adhesion to physically attractive members of one's own sex primarily that are considered
to be rival to the individual. Researchers took one hundred twenty-seven undergraduates. Participants underwent
a manipulation designed to evoke feelings of either jealousy or anxiety and frustration (this control state was chosen to
equate the two conditions on affective valence and level of arousal). Participants then envisioned a scenario in which
they observed their significant other flirting with and being intimate with (i.e., kissing) another person at a party.
At four points during this visualization, participants wrote brief responses about how they would feel. The results
suggested that a jealousy prime increased attention to attractive same-sex targets among participants who tended to worry
about potential rivals. No such effect was observed among those exhibiting less concern about possible rivals. The overall
pattern is consistent with the hypothesis that a mate-guarding motive would increase attentional adhesion to attractive same-sex
targets (i.e., potent rivals), particularly among participants inclined to worry about the threats posed by potential rivals.
McNulty, J., Neff, L., & Karney, B. (2008, February). Beyond initial attraction: Physical
attractiveness
in newlywed marriage. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(1). 135-143.
In this current study, the authors examined
how observer ratings of each spouse's facial attractiveness and the difference between those ratings were associated with
both observations of social support behavior, and reports of marital satisfaction. The researchers took 82 couples that
were assessed within the first 6 months of both partners' first marriage. They were mailed a packet of questionnaires
that were self-report measures of demographics and marital satisfaction to complete at home and bring with them to their appointment.
The researchers assessed global marital satisfaction using the Quality Marriage Index. The results showed that although
more attractive wives behaved more constructively during social support interactions with their husbands, more attractive
husbands behaved less constructively and were less satisfied with their marriages. Associations between relative attractiveness
and marital behavior, however, were consistent with predictions derived from evolutionary and normative resource theories.
Specifically, both spouses tended to behave more positively when wives were more attractive than their husbands and more negatively
when husbands were more attractive than their wives. Subsequent analyses revealed that these associations accounted
for associations between own attractiveness and own behavior. Notably, absolute values of the difference between husbands'
and wives' attractiveness were unrelated to behavior or satisfaction. In sum, these results suggest that it is less
relevant to the satisfaction and behavior of married couples that spouses be attractive on an absolute scale or similarly
attractive to each other as it is that wives be more attractive than their husbands.
Ramadhar, S.,Li, J., Tan,
H., Bell, P. (2007). Attitudes, personal evaluations, cognitive
evaluation and interpersonal attraction:
On the direct, indirect and reverse-casual effects. British Journal of Social Psychology. (46) 19-42.
In this research study, the authors considered four hypotheses, first, that attraction toward a stranger based on attitudinal
similarity is automatic, but cognitive evaluation of the stranger's quality before the measurement of attraction can make
attraction non-automatic or controlled; second, personal evaluations from the stranger activate automatic attraction and cognitive
evaluation; third, controlled attraction from attitudes and automatic attraction and cognitive evaluation from personal evaluations
engender reverse-causal effects (i.e. they mediate each other); and finally, that attraction and cognitive evaluation are
distinct constructs. Researchers took 96 Chinese junior college students and asked them to fill out an attitude survey
that gauged responses from a wide range of aspects such as belief in God, to censorship. Results showed that first,
the order of response measurement moderated the effect of similar attitudes, but not of personal evaluations on attraction.
Even within attitudes, such moderating effect was confined to females. Second, attraction can be conceptualized as automatic
and controlled. This distinction is possible more from responses to attitudes than to personal evaluations, and more
from responses of females than of males in this population of participants. Third, attitudes activated only the affective
system. Consequently, the total and direct effects of attitudes on automatic attraction were essentially the same for the
attitudes, attraction, and cognitive evaluation order. It was the controlled attraction from attitudes that was mediated
by cognitive evaluation.
Fink, B., Penton-Voak, I. (2002, October). Evolutionary psychology of facial
attractiveness. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 11(5), 154-158.
The purpose of this
article was to further previous studies of physical attractiveness has attempted to identify the features that contribute
to attractiveness by studying the relationships between attractiveness and symmetry, averageness, and nonaverage sexually
dimorphic features (hormone markers). Evolutionary psychology proposes that these characteristics all pertain to health, suggesting
that humans have evolved to view certain features as attractive because they were displayed by healthy individuals.
The article hypothesizes that bilateral symmetry of physical traits are reflective of an overall high quality of development,
especially the ability to resist environmental hurdles. In terms of averageness, previous study has indicated that computer-generated
average faces are related as more attractive than almost all of the individual faces they are constructed from. The
article also reports another influential component in the aspect of physical attraction, eye contact or eye gaze. The
Article holds that eye gaze is not only an important social interaction phenomenon, but an important aspect that predicts
attraction. Researchers tested this hypothesis by conducting an experiment in which participants viewed faces varying
in attractiveness and direction of gaze. The results showed that brain activity in the ventral striatum (reward prediction
area) produced an interaction of the two variables. First, when eye gaze was directed toward the viewers, activity in
the ventral striatum increased as attractiveness increased. Second, when eye gaze was directed away from the viewer,
activity in the ventral striatum decreased as attractiveness increased.
Elliot, A., Niesta, D. (2008, November.)
Romantic red: Red enhances men's attraction to
women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5),
1150-1164.
The purpose of the research study was to examine the effects of the color red, relative to other achromatic
and chromatic colors and if it leads men to view women as more attractive and more sexually desirable. Red is clearly
linked to sex in the context of heterosexual interaction, and thus, societal use of red is not random, but actually derives
from the biologically based predisposition to perceive red as a sexual signal. Therefore, the researchers hypothesize
that the color red would somehow increase the attractiveness appraisal of men viewing women. For the experiment, researchers
took 27 male undergraduates and gave them a single folder that was placed faced down. This folder contained a black-and-white
photo of a woman on a red or white background, followed by a questionnaire. Participants were instructed to look at
the picture for 5 seconds. After 5 seconds, participants were told to remove and complete the supplementary questionnaire,
which contained a perceived attractiveness measure, several demographics items, a question asking them to guess the purpose
of the experiment, and a probe for awareness of the effect of color. The results showed that men who viewed a woman
on a red, relative to a white, background perceived her to be more attractive. Participants were unaware of the fact
that the experiment focused on color and attractiveness, and they indicated that color had a minimal influence on their rating
of the woman.
Levesque, M., Nave, C., & Lowe, C. (2006, June). Toward an Understanding of Gender
Differences
in Inferring Sexual Interest. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(2), 150-158.
The purpose of this study was to supplement
prior research that has shown that, after brief opposite-gender interactions, men perceive women more sexually than women
perceive men. This study examined interpersonal perceptions following cross-gender interactions between unacquainted
individuals. Of particular concern were perceptions of sexual traits, interaction qualities, and physical attractiveness.
The results provided further support for previous findings that men over-sexualize women following brief interactions but
failed to support the hypothesized gender schema effects. Additional analyses suggest the presence of another gender
difference in judging attraction. Women who rated their partners as physically attractive also attributed more positive
qualities to their partner and the interaction. By contrast, men's ratings of women revealed more limited associations
with perceived physical attractiveness. Results are discussed in terms of gender differences in judging sexual attraction,
the correlates of physical attractiveness, and continuing efforts to explain over-sexualization.
Singh, D. (2004,
February). Mating strategies of young women: Role of physical
attractiveness. Journal of Sex Research. 41(1), 43-54.
The purpose of this article was to research the stereotypes of physical attractiveness in terms of how women are judged
as attractive to their male counterparts. In order to test these stereotypes, asked 187 men and women to judge 12 female
figures, each with an assigned identifying letter so the rater could examine all 12 figures simultaneously. Raters were
told to indicate their highest three and lowest three rankings for each of the following attributes in order: good health,
youthfulness, attractiveness, sexiness, desire for children, capability for having children, interesting to talk to, good
companion, intelligence, ambition, aggressiveness, sense of humor, kindness and understanding, faithfulness, and desirability
for long-term romantic (marriage) relationship. The results showed that there was a strong cross-cultural consensus
for attractiveness; figures with low WHR were judged to be more attractive than figures with high WHR within each weight category.
Participants also judged attractive figures as less faithful than less-attractive figures. The results represent a preference
that normal weight women with female-typical WHR would be expected from an evolutionary perspective. If the majority
of women were within the range of normal weight and if the occurrence of extreme thinness or obesity was rare, attending to
WHR would have allowed our male ancestors to reliably infer the health and fertility of their potential mates. Taken
together, these findings suggest that female attractiveness influences the type of mating strategies employed by women.
Puhl, R., Boland, F. (April 2001). Predicting female physical attractiveness: Waist-to-hip
ratio
versus thinness. Psychology, Evolution & Gender. 3(1). 27-46.
The present study attempted to further
expand research on the influence of thinness on preferences of female attractiveness independent of the waist to hip ratio
(WHR). Researchers took 240 introductory psychology students and had them answer a questionnaire used to rate attractiveness
and offspring potential of one of six computer altered female figures representing three body-weight categories (underweight,
normal weight and overweight) and two levels of waist-to-hip ratio, one in the ideal range (0.72) and one in the non-ideal
range (0.86). The results showed that both females and males judged underweight figures to be more attractive than normal
or overweight figures, regardless of WHR. The female figure with the high WHR (0.86) was judged to be more attractive
than the figure with the low WHR (0.72) across all body-weight conditions. Analyses of offspring potential ratings revealed
an interaction between weight and WHR such that the models did not differ in the normal weight category, but did differ in
the underweight (model with WHR of 0.72 was seen as having lower offspring potential) and overweight (model with WHR of 0.86
was seen having more offspring potential) categories. These findings lend stronger support to socio-cultural hypothesis
prospective that in industrial societies, body weight is a significant predictor of female physical attractiveness.
Also, results showed that waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) also had a main effect on physical attractiveness ratings but did not reflect
the relationship between WHR and physical attractiveness that had been proposed in previous research.
Higgins,
D. (2006, May). Same-sex attraction in heterosexually partnered men:
Reasons, rationales and reflections.
Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 21(2), 217-228.
This article reviewed the phenomenon of same-sex attraction in
married men. The author fittingly described this phenomenon as "Mixed-orientation marriage." Higgins
states that though there is scare evidence of this phenomenon, it is estimated that 20 percent of gay men have been heterosexually
married. The author suspects that early socialization experiences reinforced sanctioned social roles of heterosexuality
and the evident social institution like state legalized marriages have consequently criminalized those that deviate from the
presumed social norms. Thus, those men who later identify as gay or bisexual enter heterosexual partnerships against
their true identity. In order to quantify the reasons for this behavior, Higgins collected prior research that focused
on gay men's self-reported reasons for entering into heterosexual marriage. The results found that reasons for gay
men entering into marriage with a woman were largely because of social expectancy and concern. In further interviews
and surveys, Higgins found that respondents indicated that many grew up believing that being heterosexual and married was
normal, and they wanted to fit in to society. The author deduced that for a same-sex attracted man who has internalized
negative attributions about homosexuality, marriage to a woman can serve as a rationale for maintain a charade of heterosexuality.
Therefore, even if direct external pressure to marry is not present, high levels of self-loathing and a negative view of homosexuality
may lead gay men to attempt to adopt a heterosexual lifestyle.
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